<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
<!DOCTYPE article SYSTEM "http://www.clim-past-discuss.net/inc/cpd/copernicus.dtd">
<article language="en">
	<journal>
		<journal_title>Climate of the Past Discussions</journal_title>
		<journal_url>www.clim-past-discuss.net</journal_url>
		<issn>1814-9340</issn>
		<eissn>1814-9359</eissn>
		<volume_number>3</volume_number>
		<issue_number>4</issue_number>
		<publication_year>2007</publication_year>
	</journal>
	<doi>10.5194/cpd-3-871-2007</doi>
	<article_url>http://www.clim-past-discuss.net/3/871/2007/</article_url>
	<abstract_html>http://www.clim-past-discuss.net/3/871/2007/cpd-3-871-2007.html</abstract_html>
	<fulltext_pdf>http://www.clim-past-discuss.net/3/871/2007/cpd-3-871-2007.pdf</fulltext_pdf>
	<start_page>871</start_page>
	<end_page>898</end_page>
	<publication_date>2007-07-06</publication_date>
	<article_title content_type="html">Changes in C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;/C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; vegetation in the continental interior of the Central Himalayas associated with monsoonal paleoclimatic changes during the last 600 kyr</article_title>
	<authors>
		<author numeration="1" affiliations="1">
			<name>M. Mampuku</name>
		</author>
		<author numeration="2" affiliations="1,3">
			<name>T. Yamanaka</name>
		</author>
		<author numeration="3" affiliations="2,4">
			<name>M. Uchida</name>
		</author>
		<author numeration="4" affiliations="1">
			<name>R. Fujii</name>
		</author>
		<author numeration="5" affiliations="1,5">
			<name>T. Maki</name>
		</author>
		<author numeration="6" affiliations="1">
			<name>H. Sakai</name>
		</author>
	</authors>
	<affiliations>
		<affiliation numeration="1" content_type="html">Department of Evolution of Earth Environments, Graduate School of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, Ropponmatsu, Fukuoka 810-8560, Japan</affiliation>
		<affiliation numeration="2" content_type="html">Institute of Oceanographic Research for Global Changes (IORGC), Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan</affiliation>
		<affiliation numeration="3" content_type="html">now at: Division of Earth Science, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan</affiliation>
		<affiliation numeration="4" content_type="html">now at: Environmental Chemistry Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba 305-8560, Japan</affiliation>
		<affiliation numeration="5" content_type="html">now at: Center for Deep Earth Exploration (CDEX), Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokohama 236-0001, Japan</affiliation>
	</affiliations>
	<abstract content_type="html">A continuous lacustrine sediment core obtained from the Kathmandu Valley in
the Central Himalayas revealed that cyclical changes in C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;/C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
vegetation corresponded to global glacial-interglacial cycles from marine
isotope stages (MIS) 15 to MIS 4. The C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;/C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; vegetation shifts were
reconstructed from significant changes in the &amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C values of
bulk organic carbon. Glacial ages were characterized by significant &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C
enrichment, due to the expansion of C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; plants, attributed to an
intensification of aridity. Thus, the southwest (SW) summer monsoon, which
brings the majority of rainfall to the Central Himalayan southern slopes,
would have been weaker. Marine sediment cores from the Indian Ocean and
Arabian Sea have demonstrated a weaker SW monsoon during glacial periods,
and our results confirm that arid conditions and a weak SW monsoon prevailed
in the continental interior of the Central Himalayas during glacial ages.
This study provides the first continuous record for the continental interior
of paleoenvironmental changes directly influenced by the Indian monsoon.</abstract>
	<references>
		<reference numeration="1" content_type="text"> Abe, M., Kitoh, A., and T. Yasunari, T.: An evolution of the Asian summer monsoon due to mountain uplift -simulation with the MRI atmosphere-ocean coupled GCM-, J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan, 81, 909&amp;ndash;933, 2003. </reference>
		<reference numeration="2" content_type="text"> Agrawal, D. P., Rekha, Dodia, Kotlia, B. S., Razdan, H., and Sahni, A.: The Plio-Pleistocene geologic and climatic record of the Kashmir valley, India: a review and new data, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 73, 267&amp;ndash;286, 1989. </reference>
		<reference numeration="3" content_type="text"> Aucour, A. M., Hillaire-Marcel, C., and Bonnefille, R.: Late Quaternary biomass changes from C-13 measurements in a highland peat bog from equatorial Africa (Burundi), Quat. Res., 41, 225&amp;ndash;233, 1994. </reference>
		<reference numeration="4" content_type="text"> Bard, E.: Geochemical and geophysical implications of the radiocarbon calibration, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 62, 2025&amp;ndash;2038, 1998. </reference>
		<reference numeration="5" content_type="text"> Blumer, B., Guillard, R. R. L., and Chase, T.: Hydrocarbons of marine plankton, Mar. Biol., 8, 183-189, 1971. - </reference>
		<reference numeration="6" content_type="text"> Cerling, T. E., Harris, J. M., MacFadden, B. J., Leakey, M. G., Quade, J., Eisenmann, V., and Ehleringer, J. R.: Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary, Nature, 389, 153&amp;ndash;158, 1997. </reference>
		<reference numeration="7" content_type="text"> Cole, D. R. and Monger, H. C.: Influence of atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; on the decline of C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; plants during the last deglaciation, Nature, 368, 533&amp;ndash;536, 1994. </reference>
		<reference numeration="8" content_type="text"> Collatz, G. J., Berry, J. A., and Clark, J. S.: Effects of climate and atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; partial pressure on the global distribution of C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; grasses: present, past, and future, Oecologia, 114, 441&amp;ndash;454, 1998. </reference>
		<reference numeration="9" content_type="text"> Cranwell, P. A., Eglinton, G., and Robinson, N.: Lipids of aquatic organisms as potential contributors to lacustrine sediments &amp;ndash; II, Org. Geochem., 11, 513&amp;ndash;527, 1987. </reference>
		<reference numeration="10" content_type="text"> Dettman, D.L., Kohn, M.j., Quade, J., Ryerson, F.J., Ojha, T.P., and Hamidullah, S.: Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y., Geology, 29, 31-34, 2001. </reference>
		<reference numeration="11" content_type="text"> Eglinton, G. and Hamilton, R. J.: Leaf epicuticular waxes, Science, 156, 1322&amp;ndash;1335, 1967. </reference>
		<reference numeration="12" content_type="text"> Ehleringer, J. R., Sage, R. F., Flanagan, L. B., and Pearcy, R. W.: Climate change and the evolution of C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; photosynthesis, Trends Ecol. Evol., 6, 95&amp;ndash;97, 1991. </reference>
		<reference numeration="13" content_type="text"> France, R. L.: Differentiation between littoral and pelagic food webs in lakes using stable carbon isotopes, Limnol. Oceanogr., 40, 1310&amp;ndash;1313, 1995. </reference>
		<reference numeration="14" content_type="text"> Fujii, R. and H. Sakai, H.: Paleoclimatic changes during the last 2.5 myr recorded in the Kathmandu Basin, Central Nepal Himalayas, J. Asian Earth Sci., 20, 255&amp;ndash;266, 2002. </reference>
		<reference numeration="15" content_type="text"> Fujii, R., Maki, T., Sakai, H., and Miyoshi, N.: Paleoclimatic changes during the last ca 750 kyr recorded in the Kathmandu Valley, central Himalaya, POLEN, 14, 552&amp;ndash;553, 2004. </reference>
		<reference numeration="16" content_type="text"> Gearing, J. N., Gearing, P. J., Rudnick, D. T., Requejo, A. G., and Hutchins, M. J.: Isotopic variability of organic carbon in a phytoplankton-based, temperate estuary, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 48, 1089&amp;ndash;1098. 1984. </reference>
		<reference numeration="17" content_type="text"> Giger, W., Schaffner, C., and Wakeham, S. G.: Aliphatic and olefinic hydrocarbons in recent sediments of Greifensee, Switzerland, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 44, 119&amp;ndash;129, 1980. </reference>
		<reference numeration="18" content_type="text"> Giresse, P., Maley, J., and Brenac, P.: Late Quaternary palaeoenvironments in the Lake Barombi Mbo (West Cameroon) deduced from pollen and carbon isotopes of organic matter, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 107, 65&amp;ndash;78, 1994. </reference>
		<reference numeration="19" content_type="text"> Hahn, D. G. and Manabe, S.: The role of mountains in the South Asian monsoon circulation, J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 1515&amp;ndash;1541, 1975. </reference>
		<reference numeration="20" content_type="text"> Hamilton, A. C.: Environmental History of East Africa, Academic Press, London, 1982. </reference>
		<reference numeration="21" content_type="text"> Hastenrath, S.: Climate and the Circulation of the Tropics, D. Reidel, Boston, 1985. </reference>
		<reference numeration="22" content_type="text"> Hayashi, T., Sakai, H., Yamanaka, T., Kuwahara, Y., Yahagi, W., Sakai, H., and Uchida, M.: Middle to late Pleistocene monsoonal environments by analyses of fossil diatom assemblages and biogenic silica contents in Paleo-Kathmandu Lake, 17th International Sedimentological Congress, Abstract P-142, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="23" content_type="text"> Hillaire-Marcel, C., Aucour, A. M., Bonnefille, R., Riollet, G. M., Vincens, A., and Williamson, D.: $^13$C/palynological evidence of differential residence times of organic carbon prior to its sedimentation in East African rift lakes and peat bogs, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 8, 207&amp;ndash;212, 1989. </reference>
		<reference numeration="24" content_type="text"> Huang, Y., Street-Perrott, F. A., Perrott, R. A., Harkness, D. D., Olago, D., and Eglinton, G.: Molecular and carbon isotopic stratigraphy of sediments from the last glacial/interglacial sequence of a tropical freshwater lake, Sacred Lake, Mt. Kenya, in Organic Geochemistry: Developments and Applications to Energy, edited by: Grimalt, J. O. and Dorronsoro, C., Climate Environment and Human History, Pergamon, 826&amp;ndash;829, 1985. </reference>
		<reference numeration="25" content_type="text"> Huang, Y., Street-Perrott, F. A., Metcalfe, S. E., Brenner, M., Moreland, M., and Freeman, K. H.: Climate change as the dominant control on glacial-interglacial variations in C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; plant abundance, Science, 293, 1647&amp;ndash;1651, 2001. </reference>
		<reference numeration="26" content_type="text"> Imbrie, J., Hays, J. D., Martinson, D. G., McIntyre, A., Mix, A. C., Morley, J. J., Pisias, N. G., Prell, W. L., and Shackleton, N. J.: The orbital theory of Pleistocene climate: support from a revised chronology of the marine $\delta ^18$O record, in Milankovitch and Climate, part 1, edited by: Berger, A., et al., Plenum Reidel, Dordrecht, 269&amp;ndash;305, 1984. </reference>
		<reference numeration="27" content_type="text"> Ishiwatari, R. and M. Uzaki, M.: Diagenetic changes of lignin compounds in a more than 0.6 million-year-old lacustrine sediment (Lake Biwa, Japan), Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 51, 321&amp;ndash;328, 1987. </reference>
		<reference numeration="28" content_type="text"> Kitoh, A.: Mountain uplift and surface temperature changes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 185&amp;ndash;188, 1997. </reference>
		<reference numeration="29" content_type="text"> Kitoh, A.: Effects of mountain uplift on East Asian summer climate investigated by a coupled atmosphere-ocean GCM, J. Climate, 17, 783-802, 2004. </reference>
		<reference numeration="30" content_type="text"> Krishnamurthy, R. V., Bhattacharya, S. K., and Kusumgar, S.: Palaeoclimatic changes deduced from $^13$C/$^12$C and C/N ratios of Karewa lake sediments, India, Nature, 323, 150&amp;ndash;152, 1986. </reference>
		<reference numeration="31" content_type="text"> Kroon, D., Steens, T., and Troelstra, S. R.: Onset of monsoonal related upwelling in the western Arabian Sea as revealed by planktonic foraminifers, Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 117, 257&amp;ndash;263, 1991. </reference>
		<reference numeration="32" content_type="text"> Kutzbach, J. E., Prell, W. L., and Ruddiman, W. F.: Sensitivity of Eurasian climate to surface uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, J. Geol., 101, 177&amp;ndash;190, 1993. </reference>
		<reference numeration="33" content_type="text"> Kuypers, M. M. M., Pancost, R. D., and Sinninghe Damsté, J. S.: A large and abrupt fall in atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentration during Cretaceous times, Nature, 399, 342&amp;ndash;345, 1999. </reference>
		<reference numeration="34" content_type="text"> Maki, T.: Reconstruction of continuous paleoclimatic records in Lake Baikal and Kathmandu Valley during the Late Miocene and Pleistocene: an approach from palynological study, D.S. thesis, Kyushu.Univ., Japan, 2005. </reference>
		<reference numeration="35" content_type="text"> Malla, S. B., Shrestha, A. B., Rajbhandari, S. B., Shrestha, T. B., Adhikari, P. M., and Adhikari, S. R.: Flora of Langtang and Cross Section Vegetation Survey (Central Zone), Bull. Dept. Med. Plants, Kathmandu, 1976. </reference>
		<reference numeration="36" content_type="text"> Manabe, S. and Terpstra, T. B.: The effects of mountains on the general circulation of the atmosphere as identified by numerical experiments, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 3&amp;ndash;42, 1974. </reference>
		<reference numeration="37" content_type="text"> Meyers, P. A.: Impacts of regional Late Quaternary climate changes on the deposition of sedimentary organic matter in Walker Lake Nevada, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 78, 229&amp;ndash;240, 1990. </reference>
		<reference numeration="38" content_type="text"> Meyers, P. A.: Preservation of elemental and isotopic source identification of sedimentary organic matter, Chem. Geol., 114, 289&amp;ndash;302, 1994. </reference>
		<reference numeration="39" content_type="text"> Meyers, P. A. and Lallier-Vergés, E.: Lacustrine sedimentary organic matter records of Late Quaternary paleoclimates, J. Paleolimnol., 21, 345&amp;ndash;372, 1999. </reference>
		<reference numeration="40" content_type="text"> Meyers, P. A.: Applications of organic geochemistry to paleolimnological reconstructions: a summary of examples from the Laurentian Great Lakes, Org. Geochem., 34, 261&amp;ndash;289, 2003. </reference>
		<reference numeration="41" content_type="text"> Muzuka, A. N. N.: 350 ka organic $\delta ^13$C record of the monsoon variability on the Oman continental margin, Arabian Sea, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 109 (Earth Planet. Sci.), 481&amp;ndash;489, 2000. </reference>
		<reference numeration="42" content_type="text"> Niitsuma, N., Oba, T., and Okada, M.: Oxygen and carbon isotope stratigraphy at site 723, Oman Margin, Proc. ODP, Sci. Results 117, 321&amp;ndash;341, 1991. </reference>
		<reference numeration="43" content_type="text"> O&apos;Leary, M. H.: Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis, Bioscience, 38, 328&amp;ndash;336, 1988. </reference>
		<reference numeration="44" content_type="text"> Prahl, F. G., Bennett, J. T., and Carpenter, R.: The early diagenesis of aliphatic hydrocarbons and organic matter in sedimentary particulates from Dabob Bay, Washington, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 44, 1967&amp;ndash;1976, 1980. </reference>
		<reference numeration="45" content_type="text"> Prell, W. L. and Van Campo, E.: Coherent response of Arabian Sea upwelling and pollen transport to late Quaternary monsoonal winds, Nature, 323, 526&amp;ndash;528, 1986. </reference>
		<reference numeration="46" content_type="text"> Prell, W. L., Murray, D. W., Clemens, S. C., and Anderson, D. M.: Evolution and variability of the Indian Ocean summer monsoon: evidence from the western Arabian Sea drilling program, in Synthesis of results from scientific drilling in the Indian Ocean, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 70, edited by: Duncan, R. A., Rea, D. K., Kidd, R. B., et al., AGU, Washington, D.C., 447&amp;ndash;469, 1992. </reference>
		<reference numeration="47" content_type="text"> Prokopenko, A., Williams, D. F., Kavel, P., and Karabanov, E.: The organic indexes in the surface sediments of Lake Baikal water system and the processes controlling their variation, IPPCCE Newslett, 7, 49&amp;ndash;55, 1993. </reference>
		<reference numeration="48" content_type="text"> P&apos;yankov, V. I. and Mokronosov, A. T.: Basic Tendencies in changes of the earth&apos;s vegetation in relation to global warming of the climate, Rus. Plant Physiol., 40, 451&amp;ndash;466, 1993. </reference>
		<reference numeration="49" content_type="text"> Quade, J. and Cerling, T. E.: Expansion of C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; grasses in the Late Miocene of Northern Pakistan: evidence from stable isotopes in paleosols, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 115, 91&amp;ndash;116, 1995. </reference>
		<reference numeration="50" content_type="text"> Reimer, P. J., Baillie, M. G. L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Bertrand, C. J. H., Blackwell, P. G., Buck, C. E., Burr, G. S., Cutler, K. B., Damon, P. E., Edwards, R. L., Fairbanks, R. G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T. P., Hogg, A. G., Hughen, K. A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Manning, S., Ramsey, C. B., Reimer, R. W., van der Plicht, J., Weyhenmeyer, C.E.: INTCAL04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0&amp;ndash;26 cal kyr BP, Radiocarbon, 46, 1029&amp;ndash;1058, 2004. </reference>
		<reference numeration="51" content_type="text"> Rieley, G., Collier, R. J., Jones, D. M., and Eglinton, G.: The biogeochemistry of Ellesmere Lake, UK &amp;ndash; I: source correlation of leaf wax inputs to the sedimentary record, Org. Geochem., 17, 901&amp;ndash;912, 1991. </reference>
		<reference numeration="52" content_type="text"> Rodelli, M. R., Gearing, J. N., Gearing, P. J., Marshall, N., and Sasekumar, A.: Stable isotope ratio as a tracer of mangrove carbon in Malaysian ecosystem, Oecologia, 61, 326&amp;ndash;333, 1984. </reference>
		<reference numeration="53" content_type="text"> Ruddiman, W. F. (Ed): Tectonic Uplift and Climate Changes, Plenum Press, New York, 1997. </reference>
		<reference numeration="54" content_type="text"> Sakai, H.: The Kathmandu Basin: an archive of Himalayan uplift and past monsoon climate, J. Nepal Geol. Soc. 25, Sp. Issue, 1&amp;ndash;8, 2001. </reference>
		<reference numeration="55" content_type="text"> Sakai, H., Fujii, R., Kuwahara, Y., Upreti, B. N., and Shrestha, S. D.: Core drilling of the basin-fill sediments in the Kathmandu Valley for palaeoclimatic study: preliminary results, Nepal, J. Nepal Geol. Soc. 25, Sp. Issue, 9&amp;ndash;18, 2001a. </reference>
		<reference numeration="56" content_type="text"> Sakai, T., Gajurel, A. P., Tabata, H., and Upreti, B. N.: Small-amplitude lake-level fluctuations recorded in aggrading delta deposits of the Upper Pleistocene Thimi and Gokarna formations, Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, J. Nepal Geol. Soc. 25, Sp. Issue, 43&amp;ndash;51, 2001b. </reference>
		<reference numeration="57" content_type="text"> Sakai, T., Takagawa, T., Gajurel, A. P., Tabata, H., Ooi, N., and Upreti, B. N.: Discovery of sediments indicating rapid lake-level fall in the late Pleistocene Gokarna Formation, Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: implication for lake terrace formation, The Quaternary Research, 45, 99&amp;ndash;112, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="58" content_type="text"> Sarkar, A., Ramesh, R., Bhattacharya, S. K., and Rajagopalan, G.: Oxygen isotope evidence for a stronger winter monsoon current during the last glaciation, Nature, 343, 549&amp;ndash;551, 1990. </reference>
		<reference numeration="59" content_type="text"> Silliman, J. E., Meyers, P. A., and Bourbonniere, R. A.: Record of postglacial organic matter delivery and burial in sediments of Lake Ontario, Org. Geochem., 24, 463&amp;ndash;472, 1996. </reference>
		<reference numeration="60" content_type="text"> Stainton, J. D. A.: Forest of Nepal, John Murray &amp; Co., London, 1972. </reference>
		<reference numeration="61" content_type="text"> Street-Perrott, F. A., Huang, Y., Perrott, R. A., Eglinton, G., Barker, P., Ben Khelifa, L., Harkness, D. D., and Olago, D.: Impact of lower atmospheric carbon dioxide on tropical mountain ecosystems, Science, 278, 1422&amp;ndash;1426, 1997. </reference>
		<reference numeration="62" content_type="text"> Street-Perrott, F. A., Huang, Y., Perrott, R. A., and Eglinton, G.: Carbon isotopes in lake sediments and peats of the last glacial age: implications for the global carbon cycle, in Stable Isotopes and Integration of Biological Ecological and Geochemical Processes, edited by: Griffiths, H., Bios, Oxford, 381&amp;ndash;396, 1998. </reference>
		<reference numeration="63" content_type="text"> Talbot, M. R. and Johannessen, T.: A high resolution palaeoclimate record for the last 27 500 years in tropical West Africa from the carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of organic matter, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 110, 23&amp;ndash;37, 1992. </reference>
		<reference numeration="64" content_type="text"> Terri, J. A. and Stowe, L. G.: Climatic patterns and the distribution of C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; grasses in North America, Oecologia, 23, 1&amp;ndash;12, 1976. </reference>
		<reference numeration="65" content_type="text"> Uchida, M., Shibata, Y., Yoneda, M., Kobayashi, T., and Morita, M.: Technical progress in AMS microscale radiocarbon analysis, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B, 223&amp;ndash;224, 313&amp;ndash;317, 2004. </reference>
		<reference numeration="66" content_type="text"> Van Campo, E., Duplessy, J. C., and Rossignol-Strick, M.: Climatic conditions deduced from a 150-kyr oxygen isotope-pollen record from the Arabian Sea, Nature, 296, 56&amp;ndash;59, 1982. </reference>
		<reference numeration="67" content_type="text"> Webster, P. J.: The elementary monsoon, in Monsoons, edited by: Fein, J. S. and Stephens, P. L., Wiley, New York, 3-32, 1987. </reference>
	</references>
</article>

